Prenylated Isoflavanones with Antimicrobial Potential from the Root Bark of Dalbergia melanoxylon.

Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr (Fabaceae) is widely utilized in the traditional medicine of East Africa, showing effects against a variety of ailments including microbial infections. Phytochemical investigation of the root bark led to the isolation of six previously undescribed prenylated isoflavanones together with eight known secondary metabolites comprising isoflavanoids, neoflavones and an alkyl hydroxylcinnamate. Structures were elucidated based on HR-ESI-MS, 1- and 2-D NMR and ECD spectra. The crude extract and the isolated compounds of D. melanoxylon were tested for their antibacterial, antifungal, anthelmintic and cytotoxic properties, applying established model organisms non-pathogenic to humans. The crude extract exhibited significant antibacterial activity against Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis (97% inhibition at 50 µg/mL) and antifungal activity against the phytopathogens Phytophthora infestans, Botrytis cinerea and Septoria tritici (96, 89 and 73% at 125 µg/mL, respectively). Among the pure compounds tested, kenusanone H and (3R)-tomentosanol B exhibited, in a panel of partially human pathogenic bacteria and fungi, promising antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Mycobacterium showing MIC values between 0.8 and 6.2 µg/mL. The observed biological effects support the traditional use of D. melanoxylon and warrant detailed investigations of its prenylated isoflavanones as antibacterial lead compounds.

Medically important bacteria isolated from commercial herbal medicines in Kampala city indicate the need to enhance safety frameworks.

The high global bacterial infection burden has created need to investigate the neglected potential drivers of pathogenic bacteria, to inform disease prevention. Kampala is facing a proliferation of herbalists, selling herbal medicine (HM), of largely unregulated microbiological quality. We evaluated the bacterial contamination burden in HM sold in Kampala, to support evidence-based redress. The total viable loads (TVL), total coliform counts (TCC), E. coli counts, and prevalence of selected bacterial strains in 140 HM were examined using conventional culture, following the guidelines of World Health Organization (WHO), and Uganda National Drug Authority (NDA). Data were analyzed using D'Agostino-Pearson test, frequencies, proportions, Chi-square, and Mann-Whitney U test with STATA version-15.0. Fifty (35.7%), fifty-nine (42.1%), and twelve (8.6%) HM were unsafe for human use because they exceeded WHO's permissible limits for TVL, TCC, and E. coli counts respectively. Solids had significantly higher mean TVL than liquids. Violation of NDA's guidelines was significantly associated with high TVL. Fifty-nine bacteria, viz., Klebsiella pneumoniae (n = 34; 57.6%), Escherichia. coli (12; 20.3%), Staphylococcus aureus (7; 11.9%), Klebsiella oxytoca (3; 5.1%), Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. (1; 1.7% each), were isolated from 45 (32.1%) samples. These bacteria can cause severe clinical diseases, and promote deterioration of HM potency.

Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants utilized in the management of candidiasis in Northern Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The emergence of resistant Candida species to antifungal drugs has led to resurgence in herbal usage globally. However, little is known about anti-candida plants. This study explored ethnomedicinal plants as treatment option for candidiasis in Pader, Northern Uganda. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of potential anti-candida plants was conducted using questionnaires, focus group discussions and field observations in March 2022. Sixty-three respondents were selected by snowball technique. The frequencies of respondents/responses were analyzed, associations of respondents' socio-demographics with indigenous knowledge of herbal usage established by Chi-square (χ2) test using SPSS 27. Informant Consensus Factor was computed to establish level of agreement on herbal usage, and thematic analysis done for focus group discussions. RESULTS: Candidiasis is still common and troublesome in Pader. All herbalist had equal chances of receiving and treating candidiasis patients irrespective of herbalist's gender, age, education level, occupation, marital status and religion (p > 0.05). About 39.7% of herbalists received candidiasis patients weekly (p < 0.01). All herbalists had knowledge on candidiasis. Death (56.8%) and discomfort (36.8%) were the major health risks of oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC) and vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), respectively. A total of 32 potential anti-candida plant species in 18 families were identified. Families of Fabaceae (9 species) and Asteraceae (5 species) had most plant species. Trees (50.0%) and herbs (43.8%) were the dominant life forms. The commonest plants by frequency of mention were: Momordica foetida (26), Sansevieria dawei (20), Khaya anthotheca (15), Piliostigma thonningii (10), Clerodendrum umbellatum (7), Hallea rubrostipulata (5) and unidentified plant, 'Agaba/daa layata' in Acholi dialect (5). Plant parts mainly used were roots (56.3%) and stem barks (15.6%) harvested majorly by cutting (46.9%) and uprooting (12.5%). Most respondents (females, 95%) preferred herbal to western medication (p < 0.01) due to its perceived effectiveness. There was high consensus among herbalists on herbal remedies for OPC and VVC (FIC = 0.9). CONCLUSIONS:  Pader communities have diverse indigenous knowledge on candidiasis and prefer herbal medicines to orthodox treatment for candidiasis. However, the herbalists use unsustainable harvesting techniques like uprooting whole plants and cutting main roots. Hence, the need to document such indigenous knowledge before being lost for community usage and scientific validation.

Cytotoxicity of Medicinal Plant Species Used by Traditional Healers in Treating People Suffering From HIV/AIDS in Uganda.

Introduction: Many people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV) in Uganda widely use herbal medicines. However, their toxicity and safety have not been investigated. The use of these plants can potentially cause harmful effects to the health of patients. The purpose of this study was to determine the cytotoxicity of some commonly used medicinal plant species used by PLHIV. Methods: The cytotoxicity of the plant extracts was determined with the AlamarBlue cell viability assay using the human glioblastoma cell line U87.CD4.CXCR4. The cells were treated with varying concentrations of extracts of Warburgia ugandensis, Erythrina abyssinica, Cryptolepis sanguinolenta, Albizia coriaria, Psorospermum febrifugium, Gymnosporia senegalensis, Zanthoxylum chalybeum, Securidaca longipendunculata, Vachellia hockii, Gardenia ternifolia, and Bridelia micrantha reconstituted with ethanol and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Using regression analysis, the half maximal cytotoxic concentration (CC50) of the plant extracts were calculated from exponential curve fits, since they provided the highest coefficient of determination, R2. Results: The ethanol extracts of W. ugandensis (CC50 = 7.6 µg/ml) and A. coriaria (CC50 = 1.5 µg/ml) as well as the DMSO-reconstituted extracts of W. ugandensis (CC50 = 6.4 µg/ml) and A. coriria (CC50 = < 4 µg/ml) were highly cytotoxic. The cytotoxicity of W. ugandensis and A. coriaria compared well with the indigenous traditional knowledge of the toxic effects experienced when the plants were not used correctly. However, the cytotoxicity of most of the plant extracts (15/22) was low to moderate (CC50 = 21-200 µg/ml). Conclusion: Most of the plant species tested in this study had low to moderate cytotoxicity against U87.CD4.CXCR4 cells, except W. ugandensis and A. coriria which were highly cytotoxic.

Herbal medicine used for the treatment of diarrhea and cough in Kampala city, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Globally, diarrheal and respiratory diseases are among the main causes of mortality and morbidity. In Uganda, cities are facing proliferation of trade in herbal medicines (HM), including those for diarrhea and/or cough. Information on the economic, and the ethnopharmacological aspects of these HM is scarce, deterring the sector from achieving optimal capacity to support national development. We profiled the anti-diarrhea and/or anti-cough HM, and the basic economic aspects of HM trade in Kampala city, to support ethnopharmacological knowledge conservation and strategic planning. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was conducted on 65 herbalists using semi-structured questionnaires. This was supplemented by an observational survey using a high-resolution digital camera. Data were collected following the guidelines for research on HM, established by Uganda National Drug Authority, and World Health organization. RESULTS: Eighty-four plant species from 41 families were documented. Fabaceae and Myricaceae had the highest number of species (9, 10.7% each). Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck was the most commonly cited for cough, with a relative frequency of citation (RFC) of 1.00, and its relative medical importance was not significantly different from the other top 5 species except for Azadirachta indica A.Juss (RFC = 0.87). Entada abyssinica A. Rich (RFC = 0.97) was the most cited for diarrhea. Trees (34, 40.5%) were mostly used, and mainly harvested from wild habitats (55.2%) in 20 districts across Uganda. These HM were mainly sold as powders and concoctions, in markets, shops, pharmacies, and roadside or mobile stalls. The highest prices were Uganda Shillings (UGX) 48,000 ($13.15)/kg for Allium sativum L, and UGX 16,000 ($4.38)/kg for C. limon. All participants used HM trade as a sole source of basic needs; majority (60.0%) earned net monthly profit of UGX. 730,000 ($200) ≤ 1,460,000 ($400). The main hindrances to HM trade were the; disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (n = 65, 100%), and the scarcity of medicinal plants (58, 89.2%). CONCLUSION: There is a rich diversity of medicinal plant species traded in Kampala to treat diarrhea and cough. The HM trade significantly contributes to the livelihoods of the traders in Kampala, as well as the different actors along the HM value chain throughout the country.

Antibiotic-resistance in medically important bacteria isolated from commercial herbal medicines in Africa from 2000 to 2021: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Antimicrobial resistance is swiftly increasing all over the world. In Africa, it manifests more in pathogenic bacteria in form of antibiotic resistance (ABR). On this continent, bacterial contamination of commonly used herbal medicine (HM) is on the increase, but information about antimicrobial resistance in these contaminants is limited due to fragmented studies. Here, we analyzed research that characterized ABR in pathogenic bacteria isolated from HM in Africa since 2000; to generate a comprehensive understanding of the drug-resistant bacterial contamination burden in this region. METHODS: The study was conducted according to standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA). We searched for articles from 12 databases. These were: PubMed, Science Direct, Scifinder scholar, Google scholar, HerbMed, Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau Abstracts, African Journal Online, and Biological Abstracts. Prevalence and ABR traits of bacterial isolates, Cochran's Q test, and the I2 statistic for heterogeneity were evaluated using MedCalcs software. A random-effects model was used to determine the pooled prevalence of ABR traits. The potential sources of heterogeneity were examined through sensitivity analysis, subgroup analysis, and meta-regression at a 95% level of significance. FINDINGS: Eighteen studies met our inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of bacterial resistance to at least one conventional drug was 86.51% (95% CI = 61.247-99.357%). The studies were highly heterogeneous (I2 = 99.17%; p < 0.0001), with no evidence of publication bias. The most prevalent multidrug-resistant species was Escherichia coli (24.0%). The most highly resisted drug was Ceftazidime with a pooled prevalence of 95.10% (95% CI = 78.51-99.87%), while the drug-class was 3rd generation cephalosporins; 91.64% (95% CI = 78.64-96.73%). None of the eligible studies tested isolates for Carbapenem resistance. Extended Spectrum ß-lactamase genes were detected in 89 (37.2%) isolates, mostly Salmonella spp., Proteus vulgaris, and K. pneumonia. Resistance plasmids were found in 6 (5.8%) isolates; the heaviest plasmid weighed 23,130 Kilobases, and Proteus vulgaris harbored the majority (n = 5; 83.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Herbal medicines in Africa harbor bacterial contaminants which are highly resistant to conventional medicines. This points to a potential treatment failure when these contaminants are involved in diseases causation. More research on this subject is recommended, to fill the evidence gaps and support the formation of collaborative quality control mechanisms for the herbal medicine industry in Africa.

A new benzophenone, and the antiplasmodial activities of the constituents of Securidaca longipedunculata fresen (Polygalaceae).

Extracts from Securidaca longipedunculata showed antiplasmodial activities against reference clones and clinical isolates using SYBR Green I method. A new benzophenone, 2,3,4,5-tetramethoxybenzophenone (1) was isolated and characterized along with seven known compounds: 4-hydroxy-2,3-dimethoxybenzophenone (2); 3-hydroxy-5-methoxybiphenyl (3), methyl-2-hydroxy-6-methoxybenzoate (4), benzyl-2-hydroxy-6-methoxybenzoate (5), 2-hydroxy-6-methoxybenzoic acid (6), 2,4,5-trimethoxybenzophenone (7) and 2-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxybenzophenone (8). Compounds 1 and 2 showed ex vivo antiplasmodial activities (IC50 28.8 µM and 18.6 µM, respectively); while 5 and 8 showed in vivo activities (IC50 19.7 µM and 14.5 µM, respectively) against D6 strain. In a cytotoxicity assay, all the extracts (with an exception of the MeOH extract of the leaves) and pure compounds were not toxic to the normal LO2 and BEAS cell-lines, while the methanol roots extract (IC50 66.4 µg/mL against A549, and 77.4 µg/mL against HepG2), compounds 6 (IC50 22.2 µM against A549) and 7 (IC50 45.2 µM against HepG2) were weakly active against cancerous cell-lines.

Prevalence and dynamics of clinically significant bacterial contaminants in herbal medicines sold in East Africa from 2000 to 2020: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Infectious diseases remain a leading cause of mortality and morbidity around the world, and those caused by bacteria are common in the East African region. In this region, trade and consumption of herbal medicine has been expanding in the recent decades. Herbal medicines may be contaminated with pathogenic bacteria; however, there is limited information due to fragmented studies in East Africa. In this meta-analysis, we critically analyzed original research related to the incidence of pathogenic bacterial contaminants of HM in the East African region since 2000. The aim was to create a comprehensive understanding of the extent and dynamics of bacterial contamination in HM, to guide future research and concerted public health protection in the region. METHODOLOGY: The study was conducted according to the standards of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses. We searched and evaluated published articles from eleven electronic databases (Google Scholar, PubMed, HerbMed, MEDLINE, Science Direct, Scifinder Scholar, Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, EMBASE, Biological Abstracts and Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau Abstracts). Prevalences of different bacterial species, Cochran's Q test, and the I2 statistic for heterogeneity were evaluated using a software called MedCalcs. Random and fixed effects models were used to determine the pooled prevalence of clinically significant bacteria from studies which were included in this meta-analysis. The potential sources of heterogeneity were examined through sensitivity analysis, sub-group analysis, and meta-regression at 95% level of significance. RESULTS: Fourteen studies met our inclusion criteria. Overall, the studies were highly heterogeneous (I2 = 98.48%) and there was no evidence of publication bias. Escherichia coli was the most prevalent contaminant. Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. were the most frequently reported primary pathogens with pooled prevalence of 10.4% and 6.3%, respectively. Our findings are in tandem with recent systematic reviews conducted in Europe and Asia, but are in discrepancy with the reviews recently conducted in southern Africa. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS: The East African herbal medicine industry poses considerable health risks to communities through dissemination of clinically significant bacteria. Presence of enteric bacterial contaminants indicates possible fecal pollution of herbal medicine region-wide. Adequate research pertaining to microbial safety of herbal medicine in the East African countries remains highly desired. The latter will enable establishment of strong, region-wide herbal safety mechanisms in order to support comprehensive public health protection in East Africa.

Synergism in Antiplasmodial Activities of Artemether and Lumefantrine in Combination with Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen (Polygalaceae).

Malaria is the most lethal parasitic disease in the world. The frequent emergence of resistance by malaria parasites to any drug is the hallmark of sustained malaria burden. Since the deployment of artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) it is clear that for a sustained fight against malaria, drug combination is one of the strategies toward malaria elimination. In Sub-Saharan Africa where malaria prevalence is the highest, the identification of plants with a novel mechanism of action that is devoid of cross-resistance is a feasible strategy in drug combination therapy. Thus, artemether and lumefantrine were separately combined and tested with extracts of Securidaca longipedunculata, a plant widely used to treat malaria, at fixed extract-drug ratios of 4:1, 3:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, and 1:4. These combinations were tested for antiplasmodial activity against three strains of Plasmodium falciparum (W2, D6, and DD2), and seven field isolates that were characterized for molecular and ex vivo drug resistance profiles. The mean sum of fifty-percent fractional inhibition concentration (FIC50) of each combination and singly was determined. Synergism was observed across all fixed doses when roots extracts were combined with artemether against D6 strain (FIC50 0.403 ± 0.068) and stems extract combined with lumefantrine against DD2 strain (FIC50 0.376 ± 0.096) as well as field isolates (FIC50 0.656 ± 0.067). Similarly, synergism was observed in all ratios when leaves extract were combined with lumefantrine against W2 strain (FIC50 0.456 ± 0.165). Synergism was observed in most combinations indicating the potential use of S. longipedunculata in combination with artemether and lumefantrine in combating resistance.

Data on medicinal plants used by herbalists for boosting immunity in people living with HIV/AIDS in Uganda.

This Data in Brief article provides supplementary information to or earlier Ethnobotanical survey on medicinal plants used by traditional medicine practitioners to boost the immune system in people living with HIV/AIDS in Uganda [1]. We identified 71 medicinal plant species from 37 families and 64 genera. The data were analysed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages. Most of the plant species used were trees (27) and herbs (25) from the Fabaceae (15.7%) Asteraceae Phyllanthaceae (8.6%), Rubiaceae (5.7%) and Rubiaceae (5.7%) families. Additionally, we conducted a detailed literature review of the documented species to justify their use as immunostimulants. This data is derived from a larger survey to document the use of medicinal plant species in treating opportunistic infections in Uganda by Anywar et al. [2].

Wild edible plants used by communities in and around selected forest reserves of Teso-Karamoja region, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The consumption of wild plants is an ancient tradition which serves multiple purposes. Cognizant that Teso-Karamoja region is frequently affected by food scarcity and is not adequately surveyed for its flora, this study sought to establish an inventory and use of wild edible plants by the communities living in and around the forest reserves. METHODS: Data was collected using semi-structured questionnaires administered to 240 respondents living in and around eight forest reserves between November 2017 and May 2018. One focus group discussion (8-12 members) per forest reserve and field excursions to collect the plant voucher specimens were also conducted. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, relative frequency of citation (RFC), and the factor of informants' consensus (FIC). RESULTS: A total of 100 plant species in 47 families were reported as edible. Carissa spinarum, Strychnos innocua, Balanites aegyptiaca, Tamarindus indica, and Ximenia americana presented the highest RFC, while the families Rubiaceae, Fabaceae, Anacardiaceae, Amaranthaceae, and Moraceae had more than five species each. Grasses (Poaceae) comprised only 1% of the edible species and trees 35%, while shrubs were the most important source of wild food (RFC = 0.47). The fruits contributed 63% while leaves (29%), seeds (9%), tubers (5%), and gum (1%). The fruits were considered as the most important use category (RFC = 0.78). Respondent homogeneity was none for gum but very high for seeds (FIC - 0.93). Only 36% of species are cooked, while 64% are eaten in raw. Harvesting is done rudimentarily by digging (5%), collecting from the ground (fruits that fall down) (13%), and plucking from mother plants (82%). Only 9% of the species were collected throughout the year, 27% in the dry season, and 64% in the rainy season. The consumption of these plants is attributed to food scarcity, spicing staple food, nutri-medicinal value, cultural practice, and delicacy. CONCLUSION: A high diversity of wild edible plant species exists in the forest reserves of Teso-Karamoja region. The shrubs and fruits are the most locally important life forms and use category, respectively. These edible plant species are important throughout the year because their consumption serves multiple purposes.

Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plant species used by communities around Mabira Central Forest Reserve, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants was carried out in 14 villages adjacent to Mabira Central Forest Reserve (CFR) in Central Uganda between August 2013 and March 2014. METHODS: Information was obtained through interviews using semi- structured questionnaires. Field excursions with traditional healers and herbal medicine collectors were carried out. Descriptive statistics were used to present the data. Fidelity ratios and Informant consensus agreements were calculated. RESULTS: A total of 190 plant species in 61 families and 152 genera were reported in the treatment of various health conditions. Family Fabaceae was dominant representing 14 % of the plant species documented. Vernonia amygdalina was the preferred species for treating malaria. Leaves (68 %) were the most frequently used parts in preparing herbal remedies. Decoctions (29 %) and oral route (53 %) of administration were commonly used method of herbal medicine preparation and administration respectively. Fifty-eight health conditions grouped in 25 categories were treated using medicinal plants. Informant consensus agreement was highest for blood system disorders (0.9) that included anaemia, hypertension and blood cleansing indicating homogeneity of informant's knowledge about remedies used. Vernonia amygdalina and Erythrina abyssinica had 100 % fidelity level for treatment of malaria and vomiting respectively. CONCLUSION: The diversity of medicinal plant species used and the associated indigenous knowledge are of great value to the local community and their conservation and preservation is paramount. The therapeutic uses of the documented plants provides basic data for further research focused on pharmacological studies and conservation of the most important species.

History and conservation of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda: Forest species and banana varieties as case studies.

The history of wild and cultivated plant diversity in Uganda is reviewed, taking forest species and bananas as examples. Palynological research into past human influences on forests is reassessed. The evidence suggests that crops were first introduced into the country at about 1000 BCE, farming communities practicing slash and burn agriculture started to significantly influence the floristic composition of forests during the 1st millennium BCE and there was a major episode of forest reduction at about 1000 CE related to socio-economic change. Bananas were probably introduced in the early centuries CE. The colonial era from 1894 saw the introduction of new concepts of land ownership and the establishment of forest reserves and agricultural stations. Forests and banana diversity are currently under threat, Uganda having a very high rate of deforestation and endemic banana varieties proving susceptible to introduced pests and diseases. It is suggested that, under these circumstances, conservationists take an opportunistic approach to field engagement, making use of favourable local conditions as they arise. Partnerships should be sought with elements of society concerned with sustainable use, provision of ecosystem services and cultural survival to widen the social base of plant conservation. International organisations involved in conservation of plant genetic resources and wild plant species should collaborate with one another to develop the conceptual basis of plant conservation, to make it more relevant to countries like Uganda.

Wild edible plant species utilized by a subsistence farming community in Obalanga sub-county, Amuria district, Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Farming communities have continuous interactions with their environment. Subsistence farmers are particularly vulnerable to the vagaries of weather. These are pre-requisites for increased wild edible plant consumption. This study mainly focused on indigenous knowledge regarding identity and use of wild edible plant species by the subsistence farmers of Obalanga. METHODS: A multistage sampling technique was used to identify Agonga parish. Systematic random sampling was used to locate 64 respondents stratified among children, adult females and males. After obtaining informed consent and assent, data was collected through semi-structured interviews using a checklist of open ended questions, focus group discussions and guided field visits. The free listing technique was employed to obtain data on plant identity and usage. RESULTS: Fifty one (51) species in forty three (43) genera spread in thirty two (32) families were identified. Age and gender had significant effects on respondents' wild edible plant species knowledge. The majority of edible wild plant species were herbs (47.1%) while grasses (3.9%) were the least. Fruits (51.0%) were the major parts consumed while tubers and roots constituted only 2.0% each. Eating uncooked as snacks (43.1%) was the favoured mode of consumption compared to roasting (2.0%). Preservation was mainly by solar drying. Wild edible plants traded within and without Obalanga community constituted only 15.7%. Almost all the edible plant species (94.1%) do not have any specific bye-laws for their conservation. Only Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica and Vittaleria paradoxa representing 5.9% of the species are protected by bye-laws. CONCLUSION: Disproportionate distribution of edible wild plant indigenous knowledge was noted in Obalanga with the lowest among the children. The marketed plant species in Obalanga can offer an opportunity for household livelihood diversification through value addition and trade under the umbrella of organic products. This will increase household incomes thereby contributing towards MDG 1 on eradicating extreme poverty and hunger. It is thus vital to document indigenous knowledge so that it is not lost as plant species disappear due to environmental degradation.

Gains to species diversity in organically farmed fields are not propagated at the farm level.

Organic farming is promoted to reduce environmental impacts of agriculture, but surprisingly little is known about its effects at the farm level, the primary unit of decision making. Here we report the effects of organic farming on species diversity at the field, farm and regional levels by sampling plants, earthworms, spiders and bees in 1470 fields of 205 randomly selected organic and nonorganic farms in twelve European and African regions. Species richness is, on average, 10.5% higher in organic than nonorganic production fields, with highest gains in intensive arable fields (around +45%). Gains to species richness are partly caused by higher organism abundance and are common in plants and bees but intermittent in earthworms and spiders. Average gains are marginal +4.6% at the farm and +3.1% at the regional level, even in intensive arable regions. Additional, targeted measures are therefore needed to fulfil the commitment of organic farming to benefit farmland biodiversity.

Medicinal plants used in malaria treatment by Prometra herbalists in Uganda.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The aim of the survey was to document medicinal plants used in malaria treatment by Prometra (Promocion de la medicina tradicional amazonica) Traditional Medical Practitioners (TMPs) of Uganda and for search of new antiplasmodial herbal medicines (HMs) for further phytochemical analysis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this study, semi structured guided open and close ended questionnaires were used. Focus group discussions were conducted and key informants were chosen within the TMPs who helped in further discussions of how the herbal remedies where collected, prepared and administered. RESULTS: A sample size of 51 respondents was randomly selected among the TMPs with the help of their leader. 86 species distributed over 81 genera and 39 families were reportedly being used as herbal remedies in malaria treatment. The TMPs use symptoms like high temperature, shivering, among others in malaria diagnosis an indication that they understand malaria. They emphasized the use of leaves and bark in treatment because they can regenerate and therefore ensure sustainable use of plants rather than the use of roots which would be destructive. These TMPS treat and also advise their patients on preventive measures against malaria attacks like sleeping under mosquito nets, clearing bushes near homesteads, among others which is an indication that they help in the prevention and mitigation of malaria incidences and prevalence in the areas where they live. The Informant Consensus Factor (FIC) value of 0.8 demonstrated that the TMPs of Prometra-Uganda tend to agree with each other in terms of the plant species they use in malaria treatment an indication of quality control in as far as administration of the herbal remedies. Vernonia amygdalina Delile, Bidens pilosa L., Justicia betonica L. were highly cited as being used in malaria treatment with frequencies of mention of 38, 28 and 25, respectively. CONCLUSION: TMPs of Prometra-Uganda understand and treat malaria using the available plant diversity from their huge forest and the herbal gardens within Buyija forest. The healers are very keen at plant conservation which is a good practice. Species like Justica betonica may be investigated further for antiplasmodial assays to justify its efficacy.

Ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge on medicinal and nutritious plants used to manage opportunistic infections associated with HIV/AIDS in western Uganda.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Traditional medicine plays an important role in the daily lives of the people of Uganda to treat a wide range of health problems. Our study presents results of an ethnobotanical inventory conducted to identify and document medicinal and nutritional plants used in the management of opportunistic infections associated with human immunodeficiency virus / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), the plant parts used, preparation and administration methods of herbal remedies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed semi-structured interviews with 79 respondents (women 78%, men 22%), who included specialists in medicinal plants (such as traditional birth attendants and herbalists) and non specialists with general knowledge of plant use. Respondents answered a semi-structured questionnaire regarding their knowledge of plants and general treatment practices including management of HIV/AIDS opportunistic infections. The reported plants were collected and identified. Data were analyzed using factor informant consensus and fidelity level to determine homogeneity of informants׳ knowledge on medicinal and nutritional plants suitable for different ailment categories and the most preferred plant species used to treat each ailment category in the study areas. RESULTS: The study revealed 148 plant species belonging to 54 families, most of which were herbs (50.7%). Leaves (61.6%) were the most frequently used parts in remedy preparations which were mainly administered orally (72%). The majority of plants (62%) were harvested from wild habitats. The most important species according to fidelity values are Hibiscus sabdariffa L. for anaemia, Mangifera indica L. for cough, Zehneria scabra (L. F.) Sond. for skin infections, Rhus natalensis Bernh.ex.Krauss for diarrhoea and Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim for appetite boosting. The factor informant consensus highlighted the agreement in the use of plants and showed that the respiratory infections category had the greatest agreement (0.60). Family Asteraceae accounted for 15% of the total species recorded. Sixty plant species (40%) of the plants provide nutritional support. CONCLUSION: The study revealed that folk medicine is still widely practised. Fidelity level values indicate that these plants are the most preferred species for particular ailments. The high consensus value (0.6) indicated that there was high agreement in the use of plants for respiratory ailments among others. These preferred plant species could be prioritized for conservation and subjected to chemical screening to ascertain their pharmacological activities.